Concept Development And Testing Marketing Essay

Concept Development And Testing Marketing Essay Concept Development and Testing A two-phase stage in the development of a new product in which potential buyers are presented first with the idea or description of the new product (concept testing) and later with the product itself in final or prototype form (product testing), in order to obtain their reaction. http://www.coolavenues.com/know/mktg/cc.php3 The most important part in this step is predicting the income and expenses of the product and to do market research, predicting who will buy the product. A product concept is an elaborated version of the idea expressed in meaningful customer terms. During this stage, the product ideas that form the new product implementation list must be defined more precisely JOURNAL OF PRODUCT BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 5 NO. 6 1996 Here is a general view of how we incorporate research and creative concept into a concept development engagement. http://www.powerdecisions.com/consult-concept-development.cfm http://www.powerdecisions.com/images/Cpics/BrandPositioningFlow.gif We have to clearly define every part of the product to determine the cost of the product. We need to look at raw materials, labour, fixed costs, variable costs, costs to sell and possible return of investment. There are multiple ways to determine the selling price of your product. Pricing based on cost This is the primary basis for determining the cost price and selling price of a product. All the costs of producing the product are added together with a margin of profit, to come up with a price. The consumer or market will eventually determine the price of the product and not the producer. Possible competitor prices should also be taken into account. Pricing based on demand This is the opposite of the cost based pricing. Target costing is demand based. It means designing a product so that is satisfies costumers and meets the profit margins desired be the firm. Target costing makes the final price an input to the product development process, not an outcome of it. You estimate the selling price people would be willing to pay for a product and extract a profit margin. HANDBOEK 8. Famous brands that use this demand based pricing are: Sony and Isuzu. Pricing based on competition With this pricing method you look at what all other possible competitors are doing. The price of your own product can be higher, lower or identical to that of your competitors. This method depends on quality and customer loyalty. Price leadership is the procedure by which one or more dominant firms set the pricing practices that all competitors in an industry follow. HANDBOEK 8 BL 393 Pricing based on breaking-even Even before selling the product you determine how many you would need to sell to make a profit. This quantity that should be sold to break even would be seen as a sales goal. Break-even analysis is the process used to determine profitability at various levels of sales. The break-even point is the point where revenues from sales equal all costs. The formula is as follows, Break-even point (BEP) = Total fixed costs (FC) Price of one unit (P) -Variable cost (VC) of one unit The effect of this on the product is immense. It will determine the price of the product and the amount of materials needed to produce the product. The price of the product will determine the quantity that the consumer will buy which will determine the revenue and the profit made from the product. In this step of the production process the product can be a success or a failure Fixed costs are the costs that remain constant no matter how many products are produced or sold. Variable costs are the costs that change given the amount of products sold. Target group You need to determine the target group. With this product it is all golfers old and young amateur or professional. The next step is to do market testing. A prototype of the product is produced and given to the target group of the consumer and asked to test the product in a basic environment and give their opinion on the quality, size packaging and price. If the reception of the product is positive and the manufacturer is sure that nothing about the product can be improved the product is ready for the next step. Marketing and commercialization. The effect of the opinions of the target group on the product could lead to the restart of the entire procedure and the product could need to be refined or completely redesigned. The importance of team work and the amount of time needed on each of the different steps as set by this table. Bronne Copyright  © 2000-2010 Zebra Networks 10 April 2010 [Online] Available. http://www.coolavenues.com/know/mktg/cc.php3 Copyright  © 2000-2010 Power Decisions Group 10 April April 13, 2010 [Online] Avalable http://www.powerdecisions.com/consult-concept-development.cfm Book Author Boek naam Copy right ding Gedeelte Journal Rama Yelkur and Paul Herbig, (Bingham and Quigley, 1989) JOURNAL OF PRODUCT BRAND MANAGEMENT Global markets and the new product development process VOL. 5 NO. 6 1996 page 39 Angel MartÄ ±Ã‚ ´nez-Sa ´nchez, Manuela Pe ´rez-Pe ´rez and Pilar de-Luis-Carnicer European Journal of InnovationManagement Teleworking and new product development Vol. 9 No. 2, 2006 page 206, 208

Gay African American on TV Essay -- Social Issues, Gender Roles

Historically, the representation of gay, African-American men on television has fallen short of the mark . We have seen â€Å"sissies, faggots and finger-snapping queens† sashaying across the screen, feminizing and marginalizing African-American men by these racially insensitive and homophobic caricatures. In this paper I examine the characters: Keith Charles of HBO’s Six Feet Under, Omar Little of HBO’s The Wire, Lafayette Reynolds of HBO’s True Blood, and Julien Lowe of FX’s The Shield and how their characters manifest their masculinity. The three characters that appear on HBO shows are portrayed as strong, masculine, openly gay men. Only Lowe, the sole African-American gay man who has appeared on a basic cable hour-long television drama is a closeted gay character. Since the â€Å"out† characters appear on HBO and the closeted character appears on basic cable, is it possible that an audience who can afford to pay for HBO is tolerant of t he representation of masculine gay men while an audience watching on basic cable is not tolerant of that representation? Or is HBO’s marketing campaign, â€Å"It’s not TV, it’s HBO† an experimentation with â€Å"genre, coupled with their strategy of distancing themselves from broadcast television culminating in a distinguishable brand name and a noticeable schism between pay cable and broadcast television† (Jaramillo 60). Or rather, is the HBO audience one that is able to pay for a subscription to HBO, just gazing at these characters? Are these characters just a twist on the â€Å"big black buck† stereotype for a post-modern audience – one comfortable with explorations of masculine, racialized, gay desire? HBO’s marketing certainly attempts to position itself as a step above broadcast TV, airing programming that is de... ...hough he is tall and strong, Julien’s masculinity is policed aggressively and violently by his peers. When the rumor spreads that Julien is gay, his fellow officers, beat and intimidate him. Despite his stature, Julien quietly submits to their threats and intimidation. Quite literally, Julien’s masculinity is â€Å"policed† by his fellow police officers. Much like Patricia Hill Collins’ assertion about controlling images and that representations of black women as mammies and matriarchs work as â€Å"powerful ideological justifications† for â€Å"intersecting oppressions of race, class, gender and sexuality† (p. 69) the same can be applied to the controlling images of black male masculinity, â€Å"the â€Å"faggot and the queen†. Controlling images function to justify various oppressions by distorting reality through reducing the stereotyped subjected black body to a controllable object.

Self and Other: The Scarlet Letter :: essays research papers

With his critical essay: "Hawthorne's Awakening in the Customhouse" Loving gives the reader a psychoanalytical reading of The Scarlet Letter. Loving pays close attention to Hawthorne's unconscious motives and feelings in his interpretation of Hawthorne's writing. He is particularly concerned about the radical change of direction that Hawthorne takes in altering the initial course of his story by adding an unexpected ending. The ending, as presented to the reader in the last three chapters, undermines the notion of emancipation Hawthorne had developed throughout the story. Loving argues that Hawthorne withheld in this way a significant piece of information which would have enlightened the reader about Hawthorne’s true self: â€Å"The author’s last minute retreat from the primordial sense of himself in The Scarlet Letter may have preserved his sanity to some extent (...) but it also cost him (and us) the true ending of the novel†. (Loving, p. 23) Loving considers the novel as a highly autobiographical account in which Hawthorne unconsciously attempts to first and foremost resolve his relationship with his mother. Central to the understanding of the nature of this relationship are the recurring themes of "guilt" and "crime". The "guilt" Hawthorne suffers from is derived from the "crime" of having broken the bond with his mother by secretly getting engaged to Sophia. In the process of writing The Scarlet Letter, he uncovered his unnaturally close and dependent relationship to his mother from which his sense of guilt originally derived. Since he did not want this sense of guilt to be revealed to the reader, he added â€Å"The Customhouse† to shift the focus of the origin of his guilt onto his ancestors. According to Hawthorne, â€Å"The Customhouse† was written to increase the overall length of The Scarlet Letter. Loving however, claims â€Å"The Customhouse† to be a cover-up for Hawthorne's deep identity crisis: " He desperately needed a beginning (...) that would save him from the self he had revealed in the true text" (Loving, p.

Euthanasia Should Be Legalized

Euthanasia should be legalized The gift of life is the most precious gift of god to us. but all the good things have some gray shades. If our loved one is suffering from a long lasting illness, sans any hope of recovery, should we take the easy way out and go with euthanasia, or should one allow the patient to suffer in hope of a miracle. Nowadays,how often we see a person’s life being wasted away on the hospital beds after being through a terrible accident or health problem, when there is no scope of improvement. They go through a terrible ordeal not only physically but also emotionally And they are not the sole sufferers. Along with them suffer their loved ones. The life of such patients become living hell. Therefore, euthanasia should be legalized. Mercy killing of such people will be like doing them kindness, after their content lives and saving them from going through living torture. As it is better to have a short,happy and content life as opposed to a long one full of sufferings. Today is the era of cut throat competition. As the professionalism increases, people find less and less time for their family. When their family member is terribly ill without any hope of recovery, he becomes a burden on them. According to them, he has now not only become incapable and dependent on others, but also demand their time, money and care. As people have become sagacious, they see euthanasia as an easy option to get rid of their ‘burden’ as well as responsibility. Making euthanasia legal will give such people open license to murder and move on with their lives. in my opinion, euthanasia should not be legalised, but it should be an available option for those whose chances of recovery are way to bleak. If the case is genuine, that is, the patient is alive only on ventilators and shows no sign of improvement for some years, then euthanasia would be a better option. But if the family of the patient are only looking for an easy way out, then it should not be granted. It all depends on the nature of the case as well as the circumstances. Making euthanasia legal will always be a debatable issue. Humans by nature are strongly bonded to their loved ones, and in general will only go for euthanasia,if all the doors close and even the last ray of hope has been extinguished. But when the time comes in life to make this decision, it is essential for ourselves to use not only our minds but also our hearts.

The Metaparadigm of Nursing: Present Status and Future Refinements

The Metaparadigm of Nursing: Present Status and Fut ure Refinement s Jacqueline Fawcett, Ph. D. , F. A. A. N. Abstract The central concepts and themes of t he discipline of nursing are identified and formalized as nursing’s metaparadigm. Examples illustrate the direction provided by the metaparadigm for theory development. Refinements of the metaparadigm through conceptual models and programs of nursing research are proposed. T he discipline of nursing will advance only through continuous and systematic development and testing of nursing knowledge.Several recent reviews of the status of nursing theory development indicate that nursing has n o established tradition of scholarship. Reviewers have pointed out that most work appears unfocused and uncoordinated, as each scholar moves quickly from one topic to another and as few scholars combine their efforts in circumscribed areas (Chinn, 1983; Feldman, 1980; Hardy, 1983; Roy, 1983; Walker, 1983). Broad areas for theory development ’ are, however, beginning to be recognized. Analysis of past and present writings of nurse scholars indicates that theoretic and empirical work has always centered on just a few global oncepts and has always dealt with certain general themes. This paper identifies these central concepts and themes and formalizes them as nursing’s metaparadigm. Examples are given to illustrate the direction provided by the metaparadigm for theory development. The paper continues with a discussion o f refinements of t he metaparadigm needed at the levels of jacqueline Fawcett, Ph. D. , F. A. A. N. , i s Associate Professor, and Section Chairperson, Science and Role Development, School of Nursing, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Page 84 disciplinary matrices and exemplars nd concludes with proposals for future work needed to advance to the discipline of nursing. Present Status of the Metaparadigm of Nursing The metaparadigrn of any discipline i s a statement or group of statemen ts identifying its relevant phenomena. These statements spell out the phenomena of interest in a most global manner. No attempt i s made to be specific or concrete at the metaparadigm level. Eckberg & Hill (1979) explained that the metaparadigm â€Å"acts as an encapsulating unit, or framework, within which the more restricted . . . structures develop† (p. 927). You can read also Coronary Artery Disease Nursing Care PlanThe Central Concepts of NursingEvidence supporting the existence of a metaparadigm of nursing i s accumulating. A review of the literature on theory development in nursing reveals a consensus about the central concepts of the discipline-person, environment, health, and nursing (Fawcett, 1983; Flaskerud & Halloran, 1980). This consensus i s documented by the following statements: O ne may. . . demarcate nursing in terms of four subsets: 1 ) persons providing care, 2) persons with health problems receiving care, 3) the environment in which care i s given, and 4 ) an end-state, well-being. (Walker, 1971, p. 429) The major concepts identified (from an nalysis of the components, themes, topics, and threads of the conceptual frameworks of 50 baccalaureate nursing programs) were Man, Society, Health, and Nursing. (Yura &Torres, 1975, p. 22) The units person, environment, health, and nursing specify the phenomena of interest to nursi ng science. (Fawcett, 1978, p. 25) Nursing studies the wholeness or health of humans, recognizing that humans are in continuous interaction with their environments. (Donaldson & Crowley, 1978, p. 119) Image: The Journal of Nursing Scholarship Nursing’s focus i s persons, their environments, their health and nursing itself. Bush, 1979, p. 20) Nursing elements are nursing acts, the p atient, and health. (Stevens, 1979, p. l l ) The foci of nursing are the individual in relation to health, the environment, and the change process, whether it be maturation, adaptation, or coping. (Barnard, 1980, p. 208) Nursing i s defined as the diagnosis and treatment of human responses to actual or potential health problems. (American Nurses‘ Association, 1980, p. 9 ) The four conceptual areas of nursing are: the person receiving nursing; the environment within which the person exists; the health-illness continuum within which the erson falls at the time of the interaction with the nurse; and finally, nursing actions themselves. (Flaskerud, cited in Brink, 1980, p. 665) The domain of nursing has always included the nurse, the patient, the situation in which they find themselves, and the purpose of their being together, or the health of the patient. In more formalized terms, . . . the major components of the nursing [metalparadigm are nursing (as an action), client (human being), environment (of the client and of the nurse-client), and health. (Newman, 1983, p. 388) There i s general agreement that the central oncepts of the discipline of nursing are the nature of nursing, the individual who received nursing care, society-environment, and health. (Chinn, 1983, p. 396) These statements indicate that there i s considerable agreement among scholars as t o the concepts central to the discipline of nursing. In fact, a review of the literature revealed no contradictory statements. RecurringThemes The relationships between and among the concepts-person, environment, health, nursing-are elaborated in recurring themes found in works of nurse scholars since Nightingale (1859). These themes are listed in Table 1.Summer, 1984, Volumo XVI, blo. 3 Metaparadigm of Nursing TABLE 1 THEMES OF THE YETAPARAWW OF NURSING 1. The principles and laws that govern the life-process, well-being. and optimum function of human beings, sick or well. 2. The patterning of human behavior in interaction with the environment in normal life events and critical life situations. 3. The process by which positive changes in health status are elfected. (Donaldson& Crowley, 1978, p. 113; Gortner, 1980, p. 180) The four central concepts and three recurring themes identify the phenomena central to the discipline of nursing in an abstract, global manner. Read also Recording General Fund Operating Budget and Operating TransactionsThey represent the metaparadigm. As such, they have provided some direction for nursing theory development. As Newman (1983) explained: It i s within the context of these four major components and their interrelationships that theory development in nursing has proceeded. Theoretical differences relate to the emphasis placed on one or more of the components and to the way in which their relationships are viewed. (p. 388) The relationship between the concepts â€Å"person† and â€Å"health† i s considered in the first theme. Theories addressing this theme describe, explain, or predict individuals‘ behavior during eriods of wellness and illness. Newman’s (1979) theory of health i s one example. This theory includes the concepts of movement, time, space, and consciousness. Newman proposes that â€Å"the expansion of consciousness i s what life, and therefore health, i s a ll about† (p. 66). Another example i s Orem’s (1980) theory of self-care, which maintains that â€Å"self-care and care of dependent family members are learned behaviors that purposely regulate human structural integrity, functioning, and human development† (p. 28). S till another example i s Orern’s theory of self-care deficits.This theory maintains that individuals â€Å"are subject t o healthrelated or health-derived limitations that render them incapable of continuous selftare or dependent care or that result in ineffective or incomplete care† (p. 2 7). The relationships among the concepts †person,â€Å" †environment,† and â€Å"health† are considered in the second theme. Theories addressing this theme Summer, 1B84, Volume XVI, No. 3 describe, explain, or predict individuals’ behavioral patterns as they are influenced by environmental factors during periods of wellness and illness. Such theories place the individuals ithin th e context of their surrounding environment rather than considering them in isolation, as in the first theme. Roy and Roberts’ (1981) theory of the person as an adaptive system i s an example. This theory proposes that the person i s a system that adapts to a constantly changing environment. Adaptation i s accomplished through the action of coping mechanisms called the â€Å"regulator† and the â€Å"cognator. † The relationships among the â€Å"person,’’ â€Å"health,† and â€Å"nursing† are considered in the third theme. Environment may also be taken into account here. This heme i s addressed by theories about nursing practice. These theories describe or explain nursing processes or predict the effects of nursing actions. King‘s (1981) theory of goal attainment i s one example. King explains: that a paradigm, or disciplinary matrix, i s more restrictive than a metaparadigm, and that i t â€Å"represents the shared commitments of any disciplinary community, including symbolic generalizations, beliefs, values, and a host of other elements† (p. 926). The authors went on to say, A disciplinary matrix may be seen as the special subculture of a community. It does ot refer to the beliefs of an entire discipline (e. g. biology), but more correctly t o those beliefs of a specialized community (e. g. phage workers in biology). (p. 926) Identification of the metaparadigm i s an important step i n the evolution of a scholarly tradition for nursing. The n e x t step i s r efinement o f t h e metaparadigm concepts and themes, which occurs at the level of the paradigm or disciplinary matrix, rather than at that of the metaparadigm. The Disciplinary Matrix Eckberg and Hill (1979) explained Most disciplines have more than one disciplinary matrix.Each one represents a distinctive frame of reference within which the metaparadigm phenomena are viewed. Furthermore, each disciplinary matrix reflects a particular researc h tradition by identifying the phenomena that are within its domain of inquiry, the methods that are to be used to investigate these phenomena, how theories about these phenomena are to be tested, and how d ata are to be collected (Laudan, 1981, p. 151). More specifically, the research tradition of each disciplinary matrix includes six rules that encompass all phases of an investigation. The first rule identifies the precise nature f the problem to be studied, the purposes to be fulfilled by the investigation, or both. The second rule identifies the phenomena that are to be studied. The third rule identifies the research techniques that are to be employed and the research tools that are to be used. The fourth rule identifies the settings in which data are to be gathered and the subjects who are to provide the data. The fifth rule identifies the methods to be employed in reducing and analyzing the data. The sixth rule identifies the nature of contributions that the research will make to the advancement of knowledge. (Schlotfeldt, 1975, p. ) In nursing, disciplinary matrices are most clearly exemplified by such conceptual models as Johnson‘s (1980) Behavioral System Model, King’s (1981) Open Systems Model, Levine’s (1973) Conservation Model, Neuman’s (1982) Systems Model, Orem’s (1980) Self-care Model, Rogers’ (1980) Life Process Model, and Roy’s (1984) Adaptation Model. Each Image: The Journal of Nursing Scholarship Page 85 . . . nurse and client interactions are characterized by verbal and nonverbal communication, in which information i s exchanged and interpreted; by transactions, in which values, needs, and wants of each ember of the dyad are shared; by perceptions of nurse and client and the situation; by self in role of client and self in role of nurse; and by stressors influencing each person and the situation in time and space. – (p. 144) Orem’s ( 1 980) theory of nursing systems is another ex ample. This theory maintains that †nursing systems are formed when nurses use their abilities to prescribe, design, and provide nursing for legitimate patients (as individuals or groups) by performing discrete actions and systems of actions† (p. 29). Refinement of the Metaparadigm Metaparadigm of Nursing f these nursing models puts forth a distinctive frame of reference within which the metaparadigm phenomena are viewed. Each provides needed refinement of the metaparadigm by serving as a focus-†ruling some things in as relevent, and ruling others out due to their lesser importance† (Williams, 1979, p. 96). Conceptual models of nursing are beginning to make major contributions to the development of nursing theory. Theories derived directly from King’s model and from Orem’s model were identified earlier. A considerable amount of empirical work designed to test unique nursing theories as well as heories borrowed from other disciplines i s n ow bein g guided by nursing models. Some of the studies are listed in Table 2. TABLE 2 Examples of Research Derived From Conceptual Models of Nursing Oorothy Johnson’s BehavioralSystem Model -An instrument for theory and research development using the behavioral systems model for nursing: The cancer patient. Part I (Derdiarian, 1983). -An instrument for theory and research development using the behavioral systems model for nursing: The cancer patient. Part II (Derdiarian & Forsythe, 1983). -Achievement behavior in chronically ill children (Holaday, 1 974) Maternal response to their chronically ill infants’ attachment behavior of crying (Holaday, 1981) -Maternal conceptual set development: Identifyingpatterns of maternal response to chronically ill infant crying (Holaday, 1 982) -Development of a research tool: Patient indicators of nursing care (Majesky, Brester, & Nishio, 1 978) Myra Levine’s Conservation Model -Effects of lifting techniques on energy expenditure: A pr eliminary investigation (Geden, 1 982) – A comparision of two bearing-downtechniques during the second stage of labor (Yeates & Roberts, 1984) Betty Neuman’s Systems Model Effects of information on postsurgical coping (Ziemer. 1 983) Dorothea Orem’s Self-care Model -Application of Orem’s theoretical constructs to selfcare medication behaviors in the elderly (Harper, 1984) -Development of an instrument to measure exercise of self-care agency (Kearney & Fleischer, 1 979) Martha Roger’s Life Process Model -The relationship between identification and patterns of change in spouses’ body images during and after pregnancy (Fawcett, 1977) -Patients’ perceptions of time: Current research (Fitzpatrick, 1 980) -Reciprocy and helicy used t o relate mEGF and wound healing (Gill & Atwood, 1 981) Therapeutic touch as energy exchange: Testing the theory (Ouinn, 1 984) Callista Roy’s Adaptation Model -Needs of cesarean birth parents (Fawcett, 1 981) -An exploratory study of antenatal preparation for ce- Page 86 sarean birth (Fawcett & Burritt, in press) -Clinical tool development for adult chemotherapy patients: Process and content (Lewis, Firsich. & Parsell, 1 979) -Content analysis of interviews using a nursing model: A look at parents adapting to the impact of childhood cancer (Smith, Garvis, & Martinson, 1 983) Despite the contributions already made by nursing models to theory development, much more work i s needed.In particular, rules addressing methodology and instrumentation must be specified. Moreover, programs of research emanating from each model must be conducted to refute or validate nursing theories. Programmatic research probably i s carried out most expediently by communities of scientists. Hardy (1983) explained that each community of scientists i s . . . a g roup of persons w h o are aware of their uniqueness and the separate identity of their group. The have a special coherence which separates them from n eighboring groups, and this special bond means they have a shared set of values and a common commitment which operates as hey work together t o achieve a common goal. Coordination of their activities may include interaction among the coordination of institutions, organizations, groups, and individuals. Such coordinated groups hold a common perspective, common values and common bonds, a nd they have common sets of activities and functions which they carry out to achieve a common outcome. (p. 430) Each community of scientists, then, represents a distinctive subculture, or disciplinary matrix, of the parent discipline. It can be argued that communities of scientists may be formed outside the organizing framework of nursing models.However, it also can be argued that conceptual models of nursing, like the disciplinary matrices of other disciplines, are the most logical nuclei for communities of scientists. This argument i s supported by three facts. First, the curricula of most schools o f nursing now are based on conceptual models. Second, most graduate programs and many undergraduate programs offer courses dealing with the content and uses of nursing models. And third, clinical agencies are beginning to organize the delivery of nursing care according to the tenets of conceptual ‘models. image: The Journal of Nursing Scholarship Collectively, these facts mean that cademicians, students, clinicians, and administrators are thinking about nursing theory, nursing research, and nursing practice within the context of explicit conceptual models. It i s probable, then, that eventually the development of a ll nursing theory will be directed by nursing models. It may even by possible to categorize seemingly isolated past and current work according to conceptual models. This should provide more organization for extant nursing knowledge and should identify gaps and needed areas of inquiry more readily than is possible now. Moreover, such an endeavor should identify membe rs of different ommunities of scientists to each other as w ell as t o the larger scientific community. Exemplars S till further refinement of the metaparadigm i s needed a t the most restrictive level-that of the exemplar. Eckberg and Hill (1979) identified the function of an exemplar as permitting â€Å"a way of seeing one’s subject matter on a concrete level, thereby allowing puzzle solving to take place† (p. 927). They went on to explain: For a discipline to b e a science it must engage i n puzzle-solving activity; but puzzle solving can only be carried out if a community shares concrete puzzle solutions, or exemplars.It i s t he exemplar that i s i mportant, not merely the disciplinary matrix, and certainly not merely the general presuppositions of t he community [i. e. , the metaparadigm]. The latter may be important, but they do n ot direct ongoing, dayto-day research. (p. 927) There i s some evidence of exemplars in nursing. This includes but is not limited to Fitzpatrick’s (1980) programmatic research on time perception; studies o effects of information f about a threatening procedure on a patient’s responses to the procedure (e. g. , Hartfied, Cason, & Cason, 1982; Johnson, Fuller, Endress, & Rice, 1978; Ziemer, 19831, and investigations of actors contributing to the outcomes of social support (Barnard, Brandt, Raff, & Carroll, 1984 in press). These researchers are beginning to solve some of the major puzzles of nursing. However, more work i s needed to identify other puzzles and to develop methods for their solutions. Summer, 1984, Volume XVI, No. 3 Metaparadigm of Nursing Conclusion It is time to formally accept the central concepts and themes of nursing as the metaparadigm of the discipline. It i s also time to direct efforts toward furf ther refinement o this metaparadigm by developing specific rules for the empirical work needed to generate nd test nursing theories within the context of conceptual ‘models. The m etaparadigm must be refined still further through the developing of new puzzle-solving activities that will provide answers to the most pressing problems encountered by nurse clinicians, educators, and ddministrators. Any one of these activities would in itself make a significant contribution to the discipline; a ll three could quite possibly be the major accomplishments of the decade. ‘As used here, theory development reft. r to generation a nd testing of theory. and encornpasiei †ivory tower† theorizing as well as empirical rewarch.References American Nurses’ As5ocialion. Nursing: A social policy statement. Kansas City, Missouri: ANA, 1980. Barnard, K. E. Knowledge for practice: Direction5 for the future. Nursing Research, 1980. 29, 208-21 2. Barnard, K . E. , Brandt, P. , Raff. 8.. & Carroll, P. (Ed,. ). Social support and families of vulnerable infants. New York: March of Dimes, 1984. Brink, P. 1. Editorial. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 1980, 2, 665-666. Buih, H . A. Models for nursing. Advances i n Nursing Science, 1979, l ( 2 ) . 13-21. Chinn, P. L. Nursing theory development: Where we have been and where we are going.In N. L. Chaska (Ed. ), The nursing profession: A time to speak. New York: McCraw-Hill, 1983. Donaldson, S. K. , & Crowley, D. M . The discipline of nursing. Nursing Outlook, 1978, 26, 113-120. Eckberg, D. L .. & Hill, L. , Jr. The paradigm concept and sociology: A critical review. American Sociological Review, 1979, 44,925-937. Fawcett, 1. The â€Å"what† of theory development. In Theory developmenk What, why, how? (pp. 17-33). New York: National League for Nursing, 1978. Fawcett, 1. (1983). Hallmarks of success in nursing theory development. In P. L. Chinn, (Ed. ), Advances i n nursing theory development (pp. -17). Rockville, Maryland: Aspen. Feldrnan, H. R. Nursing research in the 1980s: Issues and implications. Advances in N ursing Science, 1980, 3(1);85-92. Fitzpatrick, 1. J . Patients perception s of time: Current research. International Nursing Review, 1980, 27, 148-153, 160. Flaskerud. 1. H. , & Halloran, E. J. Areas of agreement in nursing theory development. Advances in Nursing Science, 1980, 3(1), 1-7. Hardy. M. Metaparadigrnsand theory development. In N. L. Chaska (Ed. ), The nursing profession: A t ime t o speak. New York: McCraw-Hill, 1983. Hartfield. M. k Cason, C. L. , & Cason, C. J . Effects of , information about a threatening procedure on patients‘ expectations and emotional distress. Nursing Research, 1 982,31,202-206. lohnson, D. E . The behavioral system model for nursing. In J . P. Riehl & C. Roy, (Eds. ), Conceptual models for nursing practice (2nd ed. ). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1980. Johnson. 1 . E. , Fuller, S . 5.. Endress, M. P . , & Rice, V S. . Altering patients’ responses to surgery: An extension and replication. Research in Nursing and Health, 1978, 1 , 111-121. King. I. M. A theory for nursing: Systems, concepts, process. N ew York: Wiley, 1981. Neurnan, B .The Neuman systems model: Application t o nursing education and practice. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1982. Newrnan, M. A. Theory development in nursing. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis, 1979. Newrnan, M . A. The continuing revolution: A history of nursing science. I n N. L. Chaska (Ed. ), The nursing profession: A time t o speak. New York: McGrawHill, 1983. Nightingale, F. Notes on nursing: What it is, a nd what it i s not. London: Harrison, 1859. (Reprinted by L i p pincott, 1946) Orem, D. E. Nursing: Concepts of practice (2nd ed. ). New York: McCraw-Hill, 1980. Rogers, M. E . A n introduction to t he theoretical basisk f nursing. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis, 1970. Roy, C. I ntroduction to nursing: An adaptation model. (2nd Ed. ). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: PrenticeHall, 1984. Roy, C. Theory development in nursing: Proposal for direction. In N. L. Chaska (Ed. ), The nursing profession: A time t o speak. New York: McCraw-Hill, 1983. Roy, C. , & R oberts, S . L . Theory construction i n nursing: An adaptation model. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1981. Schlotfeldt, R. M. The needs for a conceptual framework, In P . J. Verhonick (Ed. ), Nursing research I. Boston: Little, Brown. 1975. Stevens, 8. J. N ursing theory.Analysis, application, evaluation. Boston: Little, Brown, 1979. Walker, L. 0. Toward a clearer understanding of the concept of nursing theory. Nursing Research, 1971, 20, 428-435. Walker, L. 0. Theory and research in the development of nursing as a discipline: Retrospect and prospect. In N . L. Chaska (Ed. ), The nursing profession: A time to speak. New York: McCraw-Hill, 1983. Williams, C. A. The nature and development of conceptual frameworks. In F. S . Downs & I . W . Fleming, (Eds. ) Issues in nursing research. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1979. Ziemer, M. M. Providing patients with information rior t o surgery and the reported frequency of coping behaviors and development of symptoms foll ow ing surgery. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1982. A Response to D r. J . Fawcett’s Paper: â€Å"The Metaparadigm of Nursing: Present Status and Fut ure Refinement s† June N. Brodie, R. N. , Ph. D. D r. Fawcett’s formulation of a metaparadigm for nursing represents a commendable effort to consolidate competing nursing theories and encompasses enormous potential for the advancement of nursing knowledge, research, and practice meriting serious consideration by nursing une N . Brodie, R. N. , Ph. D . i s Associate Professor of Nursing Education, Teachers College, Columbia University. Summer, 1984, Volume XVI, No. 3 scholars. This response focuses on how she accomplished this task (what she did and how she did it as well as what she didn’t do and what needs to be done). Essentially Dr. Fawcett’s metaparadigm can be viewed as an evolution of a nursing metaparadigm and an organization of the growth of nursing knowledge rath er than as a completed and finalized product. To be more explicit, the basis of the paper exhibits the spirit of Darwinian Evolution and ould be treated as a manifestation of Image: The Journal of Nursing Scholarship a transitional phase i n the competition for the survival of the fittest (theory). The metaparadigm represents a serious and scholarly attempt to negotiate entry into a different level of the theoretical arena of nursing knowledge. This task was accomplished by examining the concepts derived from the phenomena of the discipline and converging these concepts into a context pertinent to the domain of nursing by providing a structure (a metaparadigm) that has the potential of consolidating disparate nursing theories into Page 87

Gravametric Quant Lab Report

Quantitative Analysis Gravimetric Determination of Iron as Fe2O3 Laboratory Experiment 2 February 19, 2013 Abstract: In the Gravimetric determination is the measurement of mass in two different forms precipitation and volatilization. In our experiment we will be using the precipitation form which isolates an ion in a solution by a precipitation reaction, filtering, purifying by wash method, conversion to product of known composition, and final weigh of the product comparing the mass difference of theorictal and actual. This method identified the weight percent of iron in an unknown sample.Three samples are taken to limit percent error. In the results of the three samples 1 had a percent of 10. 764 Fe (III), sample 2 had a percent of 11. 725 Fe (III), and sample 3 with a percent of 12. 216 Fe (III). The average sample percent was 11. 568 compared to given amount percent of 12. 90. In theory with a loss of 1. 332 this experiment was overall successful. Introduction: In this lab the pur pose was to use the gravimetric determination procedure to identify the weight percent of iron in an unknown sample. Three samples were collected and analyzed.Iron can be analyzed by precipitating the hydrated iron oxide from a basic solution. After the basic solution is hydrated the process is then followed by complete dehydration to give solid iron oxide. Methods and Materials: Needed in the experiment was; * Crucibles, Metal rings, Wire triangles, Burners, Funnels, Filter Paper, Beakers, Glass rod, Diluted ammonium hydroxide solution, Nitric acid solution, Silver nitrate solution, NH4NO3 solution, Distilled water. Below are some methods used in experiment. fig. 1 fig. 2 Experimental Procedure: This experiment was a multiple session lab.Obtain three crucibles and desiccator. Bring the three porcelain crucibles and caps to constant mass by heating to redness for 15 minutes over a burner, use fig. 1 for method reference. Place the heated crucibles in the desiccator to cool for appro ximately 30 minutes and weigh. This was left overnight and completed the second trial in the next session with successive weighing agreed within 0. 30mg. (Keep constant numbering with crucibles throughout experiment) We measured out 1. 5g of three samples of the unknown that was given to us. Each sample was dissolved in 10 mL of 3M HCl (with heating necessary). mL of 6 M HNO3 was obtained to filtrate, and boil for a few minutes to ensure that all iron is oxidized to Fe (III). The samples was diluted to 200mL with distilled water and add 3 M ammonia with constant stirring until the solution was basic (as determined with pH indicator paper). After solution becomes basic, digest the precipitate by boiling for 5 minutes and allow the precipitate to settle. We then decanted the supernatant liquid through coarse, ash less filter paper (Whatman 41 or Schleicher and Schuell Black Ribbon, as in fig. 2 -18 and 2 -19 in textbook. ). Keep liquid lower than 1 cm from the top of the funnel.Our pr ecipitate was first washed repeatedly with hot ammonium hydroxide solution, by miscommunication. Then washed with the corrected heated ammonium nitrate and left it to drain overnight until next session. We continued to wash supernatant until little or no Cl- is detected in filtered supernatant. Detect the Cl- by acidifying a few milliliters of filtrate with 1 mL of dilute HNO3 and adding a few drops of 0. 1 M AgNO3. If precipitate is observed, Cl- is present. After identifying that there was not any Cl- present we allowed the filter to drain overnight covered with ventilation.Carefully, the paper was lifted out of the funnel, folded (fig. 2), and transferred all dried substance to crucible and any substance that is not completely dry place into beaker and into the heater for half an hour. Those placed in beaker was then placed into the crucibles that were brought to constant mass. With the paper and substance in the crucible it was placed over a small flame with the lid off to start to char the filter paper. The flame temperature was then increased keeping the lid handy to smother the crucible of the paper flames.After the paper seems visibly charred ignite the product for full 15 minutes with full heat of the burner directed at the base of the crucible where oxidized iron is located. When the crucibles have briefly cooled in the air, we then placed them in the desiccator for 30 minutes. After the 30 minutes of cooling in the desiccator weigh the crucible and the lid, reignite, and bring to constant mass with the repeated heating within a mass of 0. 3 mg. We are now complete with the experiment. Calculate the weight percent of iron in each sample, the average, the standard deviation, and the relative standard deviation for your data.Results: Crucible 1: 0. 231 g Fe2O3 ? 1 mol Fe2O3159. 487g ? 2 mol FeOOH1 mol Fe2O3? 55. 845 g1 mol = 0. 162g Fe0. 162 g1. 505 g? 100=10. 764% Crucible 2: 0. 252 g Fe2O3 ? 1 mol Fe2O3159. 487g ? 2 mol FeOOH1 mol Fe2O3? 55. 845 g1 m ol = 0. 176g Fe0. 176 g1. 501 g? 100=11. 725% Crucible 3: 0. 268 g Fe2O3 ? 1 mol Fe2O3159. 487g ? 2 mol FeOOH1 mol Fe2O3? 55. 845 g1 mol = 0. 183g Fe0. 183 g1. 502 g? 100=12. 216% *Refer to appendix for sample mass table and calculation equations | Crucible 1| Crucible 2| Crucible 3| Weight percent| 10. 764 %| 11. 725 %| 12. 216%|Average| 0. 250 g| Standard Deviation| 0. 019| Relative Deviation| 0. 015| Discussion: Since the obtained and expected results are not 100 percent match we can conclude that during the experiment we encountered a loss of product, with an average percent of 11. 57 and an obtained of 12. 90 percent. In the experiment the precipitate was washed repeatedly with given solution to filter out any Cl- at this time we notice that some of the precipitate had gone through the filter through the sides from solution being held to high causing an overflow on the sides of the filter.This was notice by the orange tint in the beaker of the filtered solution. In the experime nt scales were also changed due to overuse. That could cause some flux in the measurement changes by small degree. Another error or issue during the experiment a lids on our crucible broke having to replace it caused a changed in our final weigh being that in the beginning we weighed our crucibles with the lid. Remaining constant in the lab is a must this does cut back on experimental error such as using the same analytical balances and labeling all equipment and crucibles.In the Gravimetric determination is the measurement of mass in two different forms precipitation and volatilization. Some of the underlying principles and theories of gravimetric analysis are law of mass action, reversible reactions, and principle of solubility product and common ion effect. Conclusion: The gravimetric determination procedure determined that we had an average of 11. 568% of Fe in our unknown solution, given the amount of 12. 90% of Fe. We experienced a loss of approximately 1. 332 %. This loss cou ld be included in instrumental and human errors.References: Lewis, D. 2013. Quantitative Analysis Lab Journal. Gravimetric Determination of Iron as Fe2O3. Vol. 1: Pages 4 – 5. Franklin, J. 2013. Quantitative Analysis Lab Journal. Gravimetric Determination of Iron as Fe2O3. Vol. 1: Pages 7 – 11. Bb Learn. 2013. Quantitative Chemical Analysis. Gravimetric Determination of Iron Lab Handout. Harris, Daniel C. 8th edition. Quantitative Chemical Analysis Textbook. Appendix: Calculation equations: Mean : Mean = Sum of X values / N(Number of values) Standard Deviation: Relative Deviation: 100 ? sxCrucibles| Mass of the Beaker (empty) (g)| Mass of the Beaker & Unknown (g)| Mass of the Unknown Sample (g)| 1| 144. 181 g| 146. 686 g| 1. 505 g| 2| 159. 328 g| 160. 829 g| 1. 501 g| 3| 167. 480 g| 168. 982 g| 1. 502 g| * Above are the measurements of the unknown samples obtained Crucibles| Mass of Crucible (g)| Mass Crucible & final product (g)| Mass of final product (g)| 1| 31. 752 g| 31. 982 g| 0. 231 g| 2| 33. 820 g| 34. 072 g| 0. 252 g| 3| 40. 802 g| 40534 g| 0. 268 g| * Above are the measurements of Iron found in unknown sample

Statistical Methods Assignment Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Statistical Methods Assignment - Research Paper Example Since this is a weight reduction study, we did a one-directional t test. Results showed that the diet resulted in a significant decrease in weight, both for a 90% and 95% confidence level. In both cases, it is reasonable to say that two-thirds of the general population agrees with the principle of University top-up fees. The hypothesized p is included in both intervals. We, therefore, do not reject the null hypothesis. .. : 0.05 p = 2*0.0096 = 1 - 0.9808 = 0.0192 The test shows that there is a significant statistical difference between the sample mean and the hypothesized mean, on a 95% confidence level. We, therefore, reject the null hypothesis. Question 6 sample size 121 degree of freedom 120 sample mean 47.50 critical t 1.658 sample standard deviation 7.50 90% confidence interval (46.37, 48.63) Assuming that the population standard deviation is equal to the sample standard deviation, the confidence interval becomes: (46.38, 48.62) The two intervals do not seem to have a significant difference between them. This is a result of having a large sample size. As the sample size increases, the difference between the two intervals is also expected to significantly increase, resulting to large errors. Question 7 t ratio 3.364 alpha () critical t 0.05 2.306 reject H0 0.10 1.860 reject H0 In this test, we assume that the sample standard deviation approximates that of the population without any significant statistical difference. Since this is a weight reduction study, we did a one-directional t test. Results showed that the diet resulted in a significant decrease in weight, both for a 90% and 95% confidence level. Question 8 T 680 N 1050 T/n 0.648 p 0.667 standard deviation 0.228 Test Statistic 1.29 (1.29) 0.9015 p value 0.1970 95% confidence interval (0.619, 0.677) 90% confidence interval (0.623, 0.672) In both cases, it is reasonable to say that two-thirds of the general population agrees with the principle of University top-up fees. The hypothesized p is included in both intervals. We, therefore, do not reject the null hypothesis. Question 9 To estimate a population proportion p with a 95% confidence